Category Archives: History

Where does Russia go next?

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[Edited and Rewritten post.]

Many Western observers often imagine a future in which, after Putin’s departure, Russia evolves into a more open and cooperative nation. Wouldn’t it be appealing if Russia joined the global community of states that embrace free trade and safe tourism? This vision reflects our own ideals, making it easy to assume that Russia might share them—but history suggests the reality may be far more complex.

A review of Russian history from Tsar Nicholas II to the present reveals a persistent pattern of authoritarian governance. Although Tsar Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861 and introduced several liberal reforms, these changes faced strong resistance. Many reforms were ultimately reversed, as they diminished the power of the nobility, provoking significant opposition despite their positive perception in the West.

On March 31, 1881, Tsar Alexander II was assassinated in St Petersburg, Russia. His habit was to ride his carriage to a military roll call that day of the week. The route was along the Catherine Canal. An assassin threw a bomb under the horses and it exploded as the carriage rolled over it. The emperor’s carriage was bullet proof, a gift from Napolean III. Alexander exited the damaged carriage uninjured and paused to survey the scene. As he was doing this, a second assassin tossed another bomb at his feet which exploded, later killing him and killing and injuring many others in the vicinity. Afterwards a beautiful cathedral was built on this site called the Cathedral of the Savior on Blood.

Cathedral of the Savior on Blood. Included here only because it is a beautiful image. Image from Wikipedia.

Cathedral of the Savior on Blood. Included here only because it is a beautiful image. Image from Wikipedia. I was awestruck when I visited.

If you end up in Saint Petersburg, which I whole heartedly recommend, this cathedral is well worth a visit. It’s newer and, in my opinion, perhaps even more beautiful than the famous Saint Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow along Red Square,

Following Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication in 1917, a provisional government briefly assumed power before being overthrown by the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution. The ensuing civil war ended with Bolshevik victory, elevating leaders such as Lenin, Trotsky, and Molotov. In November 1917, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (RSFSR), the Russian Soviet State declared itself a sovereign state.

The revolution triggered widespread unrest, with numerous factions pursuing divergent objectives. The Bolsheviks relied on the Red Army, while the White Army comprised former imperial officers and Ukrainian anarchists opposed Bolshevik control as well. Additionally, thirteen foreign powers—including Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire—intervened against the Bolsheviks.

In 1922, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic ratified a constitution and formally established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), written in Cyrillic as CCCP.

Amid the turmoil of the Bolshevik Revolution, Russia ceded territories previously seized by Germany during World War I. The collapse of the Russian Empire sparked a protracted struggle among various ethnic groups and factions to reclaim land and assert authority. By 1923, the Russian Civil War had concluded.

Let me say that although the western block vigorously opposed the Soviet communism later in the Cold War, the break from monarchy by popular uprising to form the Federative Soviet Republic and later the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a remarkable achievement for that part of the world. To transition from a monarchy with serfdom to the USSR in ~60 years was a world-class achievement. The sad part was the rise of Stalinism and cementing in state authoritarianism as well as revolutionary expansion to global communism. Global socialism was an early goal of the Bolshevik leadership. Socialism was interpreted as a precursor to true communism.

So, why can’t they be like us? Because their history and cultural development never included exposure to free markets, private ownership, foreign travel and individual freedoms we in the west are accustomed to today. No Magna Carta setting limits on the power of the monarch and no parliament sharing power with the monarch. Russia did not participate in global travel as western European nations did which led to colonization and the extraction of wealth from their colonies producing gold, silver, spices, salt peter, slaves, etc. The wealth accumulation and theft of colonial resources set the pace for producing vibrant and wealthy countries in Europe, but not in many of the colonies. The American colonies are a famous exception.

Summary-

This summary only scratches the surface of the October Revolution and the subsequent civil war. For further detail, readers are encouraged to consult additional sources. The period was marked by extreme complexity and violence, resulting in an estimated 7–12 million deaths.

All of this Russian/Soviet history is meant to highlight that from the very beginning the Soviet state was born from the fire of violent conflict. The Soviet State prevailed in the end and many Soviet revolutionaries migrated into positions of power in the new USSR. It is difficult to believe that the leadership of the Bolshevik revolution and civil war were left unaffected by this conflict as they moved down the timeline building the USSR. It had to affect how they thought of power and how to keep it. Did this experience set the ball rolling for an centrally controlled authoritarian state? Was the tight control over the state emphasized by the early war experience? It is not just authoritarianism as offices and red tape, but it includes institutionalized paranoia and a lack of reluctance to use imprisonment and execution as tools of the state. The gulag system was built under Stalin. This brutal leader sent millions of people to the gulag system to labor. They weren’t executed outright because the state needed laborers to build the camps and to work on public works projects and build and operate factories. Starting in the 1930s, Stalin began to push for extensive industrialization all over the USSR. Agriculture in particular was industrialized, especially in Ukraine. This was behind the Ukrainian Holodomor of 1932-1933.

Given this history of conflict, authoritarianism, and systemic repression, it is unsurprising that Russia continues to exhibit traits of a closed and deeply security-conscious state,

Plum-Bummin in Leadville, Colorado, Director’s Cut

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This is an encore release of a much earlier post. –gaussling

After an insane week in the lab a road trip to the cool meadows of the nearby mountain range was just what the doctor called for. It was the last weekend before the family- one teacher and one kid-  return to school. Summer break 2009 is history.

We piled in the car and pointed it uphill towards Leadville, Colorado. The planetary atmosphere thinly blankets this insanely high mountain city. It was just what I needed to clear my scrambled mind. Nothing like blinding sunshine and mild oxygen starvation to reset a brain in chronic spasm from sensory overload.

Leadville sits at 10,152 feet above sea level.  If you doubt the effect on your stamina, just take a short sprint in any direction. Or just plod up the stairs of your hotel. Lordy.  All of those business dinners- all that lovely Cabernet and Crème Brûlée- and years of driving a desk have caught up with me.

Leadville is located in the Colorado mineral belt and began to populate with fortune seekers about the time of the Colorado gold rush in 1859. Some placer gold was found in the streams, particularly in what was then called California Gulch, but for the most part Leadville became a silver camp.

In 1874, two investors with metallurgical training, Alvinius B. Woods and William H. Stevens arrived in Leadville and analyzed the muds found in the local sluicing operations. According to A Companion to the American West, edited by William Francis Deverell, (2004, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-21357-0, p. 319)  Woods and Stevens found the heavy black mud so problematic for gold sluicing was in fact composed of lead carbonate with high levels of silver.  Woods and Stevens invested $50,000, quietly buying as many claims as they could and began hydraulic mining operations immediately.

By 1890 there were nearly 90 mines in operation employing 6000 miners. At its peak there were 14 smelter operations supporting the mines. Leadville was a genuine boom town with the expected mix of characters.

A mine is a hole in the ground with a liar standing at the top.

All mining towns have characters who go on to dominate local legends and stories. Among the well-known-for-being-famous rags to riches to rags players in Leadville are Horace and Agusta Tabor, along with Horace’s mistress and 2nd wife, Elizabeth “Baby Doe”.

To make a long story short, Horace was a struggling shop keeper who invested in a mine east of Leadville. Though it was salted by the previous owner to entice buyers, Tabor dug 25 ft further down the shaft and struck a rich and extensive vein of silver ore.  The operation was called the Matchless Mine, after Tabor’s favorite brand of chewing tobacco.

According to the tour operators, Tabor operated the Matchless Mine 24/7 for 13 years, pulling an average of $2000/day of silver out of it. At its peak, the mine is said to have employed 100 people. Miners were paid the common rate of $3.00 per day to climb 365 ft to the bottom of the shaft for 12 hour shifts.

Matchless Mine Surface Workings
Matchless Mine Surface Workings
Gangue Dump Detail
Tailings Dump Detail

The underground workings of the mine followed the vein structure and focused on sending concentrated ore to the surface. Buckets carrying approximately one ton of ore per load (my estimate) were tipped into ore carts and rolled into the ore house for hand sorting. The most highly concentrated and valuable ore was dumped down a chute for loading into a rail car and the gangue (or tailings) was dumped into the gulch.

An assay building (not shown) was on site to provide a continuous assay and accounting of silver sent to the smelter in Pueblo, Colorado. Unlike many other mine operators, Tabor owned a rail operation and had a spur at the mine for pickup and delivery of ore. Many mine operators had to employ mule-skinners to cart wagon loads of ore to a rail siding for transport to the nearest smelter.

In 1893 the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act and the collapse of the railroad industry bubble were part of a panic that lead to a crash in silver prices. Tabor lost everything and, as a respected public figure, was appointed postmaster of Denver for a short time. Eventually Tabor died at age 69 in 1899. Ex-wife Agusta had invested her divorce settlement wisely in Denver and lived comfortably. Widow Baby Doe Tabor was found frozen stiff in her shack at the Matchless Mine in 1935.

Matchless Mine Shack
Matchless Mine Shack

All of the digging from the boom time of Leadville has left an enduring legacy for those who live in the watershed. Much of the mining activity occurred uphill, east of the city and as a result, that area is pock marked with many large colorful tailings heaps. While the colors are interesting to ponder and sample, the ground and surface waters are greatly affected by aqueous extraction of metals from these piles.

If you stand next to one of these heaps, you can’t help but notice the smell of sulfur. The ore and tailings are enriched in sulfides and once exposed to air and water, oxidation occurs to make corrosive runoff. This is a kind of heap leaching phenomenon that will eventually exhaust itself, but only at the cost of water quality.

Boomtown Legacy
Boomtown Legacy (Copyright 2009 All rights reserved)

Update: Huo Yao (Fire-Drug)- Predecessor to Gunpowder.

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[Note: This is an updated version of an earlier post.]

Recently I spent some time tracing the very early history of gunpowder or Huo Yao (China, ca 850 AD). It turns out that the earliest clear description of a gunpowder-like composition was described in a document produced during the Tang Dynasty. A document titled “Classified Essentials of the Mysterious Tao of the True Origins of Things” contained a list of particularly dangerous elixirs. A comprehensive history of Chinese science can be found in “Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5: Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts” by Joseph Needham. Within this list of hazardous compositions, a warning was offered citing the dangers of mixing and heating together realgar, salt peter, sulfur, and honey.  The document tells of alchemists mixing this combination and heating it, resulting in a deflagration leading to burnt beards, faces, and hands as well as the loss of the structure to fire. This mixture has been translated as “fire-drug”.

There are earlier references to admixtures that could produce a violent effect, but the compositions are not disclosed. The information in the 850 AD document clearly describes the components of classic gunpowder- a nitrate oxidizer, sulfur or sulfide for low ignition temperature, and a carbohydrate reducing agent- honey. What is notable about gunpowder is that is a self-contained redox system containing two sides of the fire triangle– fuel and oxidizer in intimate contact. All that is needed for an exothermic reaction is initiation with some kind of energy stimulus.

A couple of thoughts on the realgar present in the mix. First, alchemists were commonly in the apothecary trade and made their living preparing medicaments, not so much searching for the philosopher’s stone. It is not unreasonable to suppose that the composition was intended for some medicinal effect. Realgar is red tetraarsenic tetrasulfide (As4S4), possibly with some amount of yellow Orpiment (As2S3), and may have been a common apothecary ingredient of the time. Crystalline realgar is a ruby-like, eye-catching substance and it is not surprising that it captured the fancy of alchemists.

Source: Wikipedia. Crystalline realgar, As4S4.
Source: Wikipedia. Crystalline orpiment, As2S3.

Second, realgar and orpiment are found in hydrothermal deposits as are copper, gold, silver, and mercury sulfides (metal sulfides as a group were referred to then by the obsolete term sulphuret). Back when roasting ore was widely practiced (and legal), it was common for miners in American lode gold districts to heap sulphuretted ores onto a wood pile and set it alight directly or air oxidize it in a reverberatory furnace. This process would actually ignite the sulphureted ore and in the case of gold and mercury, release the native metal. The point is that sulphuretted arsenic would be expected to contribute to the combustion process as a reducer of nitrate or just as a spectator fuel.

My understanding of sulfur’s role in gunpowder is that of a low-melting, combustible substance which, when ignited, maintains intimate thermal contact with the solid nitrate and carbon elements, transferring heat to trigger and sustain the deflagration or explosive redox reaction.

In medieval times, before blasting with gunpowder was available, it was common in hard rock mining to fracture rock by creating a large fire adjacent to a rock face to get it hot, then water was splashed on it in an attempt to fracture the hot rock by thermal shock. [In my lonely voice squeaking out from under my rock along the riverbank, I would offer that this activity might have presented the opportunity to discover that some (sulphuretted) minerals were combustible. Alternatively, building a ring of sulfuretted rock around a campfire may have led to the same discovery.]

Russian Death-Tanks

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Numerous YouTube videos depict the widespread destruction of Russian tanks in the invasion of Ukraine, giving the impression that these tanks are more lethal to Russian soldiers than their opponents. Despite being equipped with Explosive Reactive Armor (ERA), their ability to withstand artillery, mines, and drone attacks seems minimal. Moreover, when the armor is breached, the cannon gun propellant tends to ignite violently, causing the warheads to explode and instantly killing the crew. Occasionally, the force of ammunition blasts is so strong that it hurls the turret with gun barrel into the air, a stark illustration of the power of such explosions. Consequently, videos frequently capture Russian tank crews abandoning their crippled vehicles and fleeing for safety. Instead of offering protection, tanks have become conspicuous and cumbersome targets, prone to devastating attacks.

One might question the practical value of reactive armor. The landscapes of eastern Ukraine are strewn with thousands of destroyed Russian tanks, their ERA blocks still intact. Perhaps its practical value lies in bolstering the confidence of tank crews to engage in battle, trusting in the ERA’s protective capabilities. However, it is now challenging to believe that ERA instills a sense of safety in tank crew members. The effectiveness of reactive armor seems negated by potent penetrator warhead countermeasures capable of breaching the ERA. The pertinent question remains: does the ERA diminish the impact of an incoming shell sufficiently to be considered effective?

The conflict between Putin and Ukraine will eventually conclude, and the victors will promptly seek to repurpose the battlefields for peacetime activities. However, they must first contend with numerous challenges, including the presence of unexploded ordnance. Thousands of mines may remain hidden, posing a threat for decades unless they are securely disposed of or neutralized.

The landscape of the battle zones is marred by bomb craters, charred vehicles—many with unexploded ammunition—minefields, unexploded ordnance scattered about, live explosive reactive armor on destroyed armored vehicles, and soil polluted with shrapnel and residues from countless detonated artillery shells.

Numerous cities and villages, particularly those near the Russian border, have been completely obliterated by Putin’s military, resulting in tens of thousands of civilian casualties and leaving most without homes. The remnants of homes, businesses, and infrastructure stand as a testament to the survivors. For them, social and economic frameworks are now just distant memories. Civilization has been set back by at least a generation due to Putin’s distorted ambitions for an imperial legacy. The man is not insane or unintelligent; he is quite astute and fully aware of his actions—he is simply a terrible person. Currently, the US is facing its own challenge with a figure of ill repute seeking control of the government, backed by a significant number of misguided followers.

In the conflict in Ukraine, it’s conceivable that one precisely aimed bullet could have altered the course of events, a notion that has been a sad reality in many wars. This was a concern even during Stalin’s time. Since 2000, Putin and his associates have been systematically constructing the framework for an authoritarian state and military power, positioning him at the apex of power. His ambition is to supplant the hegemony of the US and NATO with the hegemony of Russia.

The conflict has been a catastrophic event for the region’s flora and fauna, significantly hindering the biosphere in numerous areas. Ukraine, until recently, was a significant grain producer and exporter, essential for the sustenance of millions. In the early stages of the conflict, Russia targeted and destroyed much of Ukraine’s grain distribution infrastructure, aiming to debilitate the economy and hasten a surrender. The bombings of civilian residences, hospitals, and other infrastructures will tarnish Putin’s reputation, marking him as a tyrant and a fundamentally flawed individual. Additionally, the reported abduction of thousands of Ukrainian children by Russia for forced assimilation and adoption raises serious legal and humanitarian questions. These actions are meticulously recorded for potential future war crimes proceedings and historical record.

Navalny and Trump: Brothers in Sacrifice. Seriously??

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Recently Trump has compared his troubles to that of Alexei Navalny, the recently deceased political opponent of Putin. Fox News aired a Trump interview with Laura Ingram where she asked how he is going to pay his enormous legal costs. He described his troubles as “a form of Navalny” and quickly pivoted to his large-scale legal woes. He stated that “We are turning into a communist country in many ways.”

First, 4 grand juries of fellow citizens in 4 jurisdictions indicted him on 91 felony counts. He has been given due process. For, Navalny, not so much. He was poisoned with nerve agent in 2020 (a particularly Russian trick) but managed to survive. Following treatment abroad, he returned to Russia where he was quickly apprehended, convicted and sentenced to 19 years in a maximum security prison for recidivists and those with life sentences for violence.

Source: Google Maps. The Fku-Ik3 facility in Kharp, Russia, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug.

He was sent to penal colony number 3, a distant arctic prison in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. According to Hugh Williamson of Human Rights Watch, “The Russian authorities have abandoned any pretense of justice in dealing with dissenters, and with Navalny they have thrown a litany of charges against him, each more brazenly absurd than the next.

Source: Google maps. Navalny’s Polar Wolf penal colony was in the town of Kharp in north central Russia, as indicated on the map. The town was built by Gulag prisoners in the Stalin era.

The Soviet Union had a large number of Gulags prior to its collapse. The map below shows the locations of the camps. During Operation Barbarossa in WWII, Hitlers army and Himmler’s SS were under orders to kill all Jews encountered and they did. Many non-Jewish Poles, Ukrainians and Belarusians were murdered during Hitler’s advance to Moscow and subsequent retreat. Poland in particular suffered greatly during this time. Some fraction of Jews were sent to various concentration camps but a great many were collected into groups and shot en masse just outside of their villages. As the Red Army moved into Poland killing and pushing the Germans west, Stalin gave orders to take over control of the country and establish a communist government. The participants of the weak non-communist provisional government of Poland were captured and killed by the Soviets and the Polish government was taken over under communist control. Many, many Poles were captured and sent into forced labor in the Gulag system. Poland was savaged by both the Soviets and Germans.

Source: Wikipedia, Gulag. According to Wikipedia, the Soviets had 423 labor camps as of March, 1940. It is said that 18 million people passed through the camps and 1.6 million died due to detention.

As an American, I have been exposed to the history of both the western European and Pacific theaters of WWII. However, the history of Central and Eastern Europe, especially from WWI through WWII has largely been absent in my experience. I just finished reading the 2010 Bloodlands by Timothy Snyder. Snyder is a Yale historian and writes in detail on the period in the Central and Eastern European regions between the times of the Bolshevik revolution and the end of WWII.

The period of 1932 to 1933 (the Holodomor) in Ukraine is particularly interesting and sheds light on the fear and revulsion Ukrainians must feel at the prospect of once again coming under Russian rule. During this time the Soviets, on orders from the Kremlin in Moscow, blocked any exit from Ukrainian territory and starved the Ukrainians in an effort to speed collectivization. Their agricultural products were stolen leaving Ukrainians to starve. Many tens of thousands were killed or sent to the gulags. Being sent to the gulags entailed being packed into rail cars and shipped off without food or warmth. Sometimes when they arrived, they found that they would be forced to build the prison camp they would be imprisoned in.

Some critics complained that the book presents nothing new. It is after all heavily referenced to extensive existing literature. Nonetheless, it is a very compelling read for we non-scholars. For Americans in general, this bit of history is probably unheard of.

For Trump to compare his “treatment” by the American Justice system to that of Navalny betrays great ignorance of the history and contemporary politics of Russia. His lack of compassion for Ukraine is only a small slice of his overall absence of compassion.

Trump bitches that his troubles are of political origin. I agree, they are. Our democratic republic is in part a political system of government. Citizen voting and the legislative process are inherently political, but adherence to the law require is absolute. This political structure has a built-in justice system based on due process and the presumption of innocence with many checks and balances- perhaps to the point of generousness. Trump and his legal team routinely take advantage of our due process by filing for delays, dismissals, objections, nuances in civil trial procedure and lawsuits for the purpose of delaying judgement. He learned from his first attorney, Roy Cohn, former chief counsel to Senator Joseph McCarthy. Trump and his squad of attorneys are very good at it. Trump is a very ignorant and narcissistic man-child who attracts national news coverage because of his outrageous behavior. It’s cheaper than advertising, just like in the 2016 campaign. For him to compare his predicament to that of Alexei Navalny is preposterous. In Trump’s portfolio of legal trouble, where there is smoke, there is fire.

Handing over the presidency of the USA again to Trump would be a tragic mistake that might not be recoverable.

The Illuminating History of Producing Brighter Flames

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This is a reprint of an October 25, 2010, piece that I wrote about illumination with flames. I did tweak the title a bit for the sake of accuracy. -Th’ Gaussling

Until the invention of the electric lamp, the illumination of living and working space was very much the result of sunlight or of combustion.  Since the development of fire making skills in prehistoric times, the combustion of plant matter, fossil fuels, or animal fat was the only source of lighting available to those who wanted to illuminate the dark spaces in their lives.

From ancient times people had to rely on flames to throw heat and an agreeable yellowish light over reasonable distances. A good deal of technology evolved here and there to optimally capture the heat of combustion to do useful work (stoves, furnaces, and boilers) from readily available fuels. 

Lighting technology also evolved to maximally produce illumination from flame.  High energy density fuels that offered a measure of convenience for lamp users evolved as well. Liquid fuels like vegetable oils, various nut oils, whale oil and kerosene could flow to the site of combustion and were in some measure controllable for variable output. The simple wick is just such a  “conveyance and metering device” for the control of a lamp flame. Liquid fuels flow along the length of a wick by capillary action to a combustion zone whose size was variable by simple manipulation of the exposed wick surface area.

The first reported claim of the destructive distillation of coal was in 1726 by Dr Stephen Hales in England. Hales records that a substantial quantity of “air” was obtained from the distillation of Newcastle coal. It is possible that condensable components were generated, but Hales did not make arrangements to collect them.  Sixty years earlier an account of a coal mine fire from flammable coal gases (firedamp) highlighted the dangerous association of coal with volatiles. So, flammable “air’ was associated with coal for some time.

By 1826 a few chemists and engineers were examining the use of combustable gases for illumination. The historical record reveals two types of flammable gas that were derived from coal- coal gas and water-gas. Both gases came from the heating of coal, but under different conditions. Coal gas was the result of high temperature treatment of coal in reducing conditions. It is a form of destructive distillation where available volatiles are released.  Depending on the temperature, there was the possibility of pyrolytic cracking of heavies to lights as well. 

Water-gas was the result of the contact of steam with red hot coal or coke. The water dissociates into H2 and CO. Water gas is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, both of which are combustible. The formation of water-gas is reported to have been discovered by Felice Fontana in 1780. 

One of the properties of burning coal gas or water-gas was the notably meager output of light from the flame. Workers like Michael Faraday and others noted that these new coal derived gases provided feeble illumination, but if other carbonaceous materials could be entrained, then a brighter flame could result. It was during the course of investigations on illumination with carburized water-gas that Faraday discovered bicarburet of hydrogen, or benzene.

About this time, an engineer named Donovan also noted that if other carbonaceous materials were to be entrained into water-gas, then the light output was enhanced. So, in 1830, engineer Donovan installed a “carburetted” water-gas lighting system for a short run in Dublin.

Coal gas was first exploited for lighting by the Scottish engineer William Murdoch.  Murdoch began his experiments in 1792 while working for Watt and Boulton in England. By the late 1790’s, Murdoch was commercially producing coal gas lighting systems. His home was the first to be lit with coal gas.

The carburization of water gas eventually became an established industry in America in the second half of the 19th century. The treatment of gases, especially with the discovery of natural gas in Ohio, increased the commercial viability of lighting with gas. Carburization of water gas was aided by the discovery of hydrocarbon cracking to afford light components that could be used for this purpose.

Thorium is frequently found in the ores of rare earth elements (REE) and the connection of REE’s to the issue of illumination begins in the laboratories of Berzelius in about 1825. Berzelius had observed that when thoria and zirconia were heated in non-luminous flames, the metal oxides glowed intensely.  But this was not a new phenomenon. Substances like lime, magnesia, alumina, and zinc oxide were known to produce a similar effect. Goldsworthy Gurney had developed the mechanism of the Limelight a few years before. In the limelight, a hydrogen-oxygen flame played on a piece of lime (calcium oxide) to produce a brilliant white glow.  This effect was soon developed by Drummond to produce a working lamp for surveying.

The work of Berzelius was an important step in the development of enhanced flame illumination. He had extended the range of known incandescent oxides to include those that would eventually form the basis of the incandescent mantle industry.  Thoria (mp 3300 C) and zirconia (mp 2715 C) are refractory metal oxides that retain mechanical integrity at very high temperature. This is a key attribute for commercial feasibility.

Numerous forms of incandescent illumination enhancements were tried in the middle 19th century. Platinum wire had the property of glowing intensely in non-luminous flames. But platinum was not robust enough for extended use and was quite rare and consequently very expensive. By 1885, a PhD chemist named Carl Auer von Welsbach patented an incandescent mantle which was to take the gas light industry to a new level of performance. Welsbach studied under professor Robert Bunsen at the University of Heidelberg. 

Welsbach fashioned the incandescent mantle into the form that is familiar to anyone today who has used a Coleman lantern. The original mantle was comprised of a small cellulose nitrate bag that had been impregnated with magnesium oxide, lanthanum oxide, and yttrium oxide in the ratio of 60:20:20.  The mantle gave off a greenish light and was not very popular.

By 1890, Welsbach produced an improved incandescent mantle containing thoria and ceria in a ratio of 99:1. This mantle emitted a much whiter light and was very successful. Many combinations of zirconia, thoria, and REE metal oxides were tried owing to their refractory nature, but the combination of thoria-ceria at the ratio of 99:1 was enduring.

Welsbach made another contribution to the commercialization of REEs. Welsbach had experimented with mischmetal and was interested in its pyrophoric nature. He had determined that a mixture of mischmetal and iron, called ferrocerium, when struck or pulled across a rough surface, afforded sparks. In 1903 Welsbach patented what we now call the flint.  In 1907 he founded Treibacher Chemische Werke GesmbH. Today Treibacher is one of the leading REE suppliers in the world.

See the earlier post on REE’s.

REE’s in Greenland.

REE Bubble?

REE’s in Defense.

REE’s at Duke.

Junior RFK and Thimerosal

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My, my, my. Rober F. Kennedy Jr. really screwed the pooch with his comments on ethnically targeted COVID-19. Reportedly, he said “there is an argument that (COVID-19) is ethnically targeted”, adding “Covid-19 is targeted to attack Caucasians and Black people. The people who are most immune are Ashkenazi Jews and Chinese …. we don’t know whether it’s deliberately targeted or not.” If this quote is correct, he did not actually say that COVID-19 was ethnically targeted, but rather that “there is an argument …”. It is much like saying “is Bob still beating his wife? I just don’t know …” Whether he endorses the targeting theory or not isn’t clear, but he was willing to trot out this provocative statement to make his point. There was much blowback. Given the racial undertones, it was a large blunder.

RFK Jr. is well known as an advocate for conspiracy theories, some of which are whoppers. The online news magazine Slate has an article that compiles them. I find that his portfolio of mania is exhausting. The thought of pushing back against such seems like a fool’s errand. It reminds of a line in the movie True Grit: “What have you done when you have bested a fool?” What is the point in debating him?

RFK Jr. is a Harvard grad and went the University of Virginia School of Law to get his JD degree. He had a few slip ups early in his career but recovered. He spent most of his career as an environmental lawyer and has fought many laudable battles for environmental justice. Somewhere along the line he went off the rails and landed in the crackpot ferry to conspiracy land. RFK Jr. is a penetrating anti-vaccine voice who can draw large crowds if for no other reason just to see him.

The substance of concern behind much of the anti-vaccine Sturm und Drang is Thimerosal. It is a synthetic organomercurial compound that is effective against bacteria and fungi. Its biocidal properties have been known since the around 1930. Mercurials have been used since the time of the Swiss alchemist Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim) in the 1500’s. Paracelsus is known for the pronouncement that “only the dose makes the poison.” This remains a fundamental principle of toxicology.

The early mercurial medicaments used by Paracelsus were simple inorganic salts of mercury(II) like mercuric chloride, HgCl2, or mercury(I) like mercurous chloride, Hg2Cl2, also known as the mineral calomel. Mercuric chloride is prepared by treating liquid mercury with sulfuric acid followed by addition of sodium chloride for anion exchange. Mercurous chloride is prepared by heating mercuric chloride with mercury to do the reduction of Hg++ to Hg+.

Thimerosal is sometimes wrongly compared to methylmercury, a known and tragically toxic compound with the formula CH3Hg+X–. The X anion can be chloride, hydroxide or a thiol, depending on the source. It is an easy comparison to make because of the similarity of methyl (CH3) to the ethyl (CH3CH2) hydrocarbon group in Thimerosal, but research has proven it to be a poor comparison. Methylmercury compounds can be produced by aquatic microorganisms in water bodies in the presence of inorganic mercury. The methylation of natural biomolecules is a well-known process.

Like many metals, mercury has an affinity for sulfur, occurring naturally as mercury (II) sulfide, HgS, as deposits of Cinnabar or as a minor constituent with other minerals. It also has an affinity for sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine, cysteine and homocysteine found in proteins. In the bloodstream mercury binds with proteins like albumin to the extent of 95-99 %. While in the body and exposed to water it decomposes to thiosalicylate and ethylmercury. Ethylmercury cation (CH3CH2Hg+) disperses widely and can cross the blood-brain and placental barriers.

Cinnabar crystal, HgS. Source: Mindat.org

According to Doria, Farina, and Rocha (2015) in Applied Toxicology, a comparison of effects between methylmercury and ethylmercury gave essentially the same outcomes in vitro for cardiovascular, neural and immune cells. Under in vivo conditions, however, there was evidence of different toxicokinetic profiles. Ethylmercury showed a shorter half-life, compartmental distribution and elimination compared to methylmercury. Methylmercury and ethylmercury toxicity profiles show different exposure and toxicity risks.

For many years, Thimerosal was sold as an antiseptic under the name Merthiolate as a tincture (an ethanol solution) by Eli Lilly and Co. Like most households in the 1960’s, we had it in the medicine cabinet or its cousin Mercurochrome. They were used for topical application to burns, cuts and scratches. Thimerosal has been used as a preservative in many health-related preparations such as vaccines, eye drops and contact lens disinfecting solutions. While the CDC has cleared it of doing harm, anti-vaccine mania hit the fan well before COVID-19 and RFK Jr. put his credibility and name recognition behind it.

Thimerosal was first prepared by chemist Morris Kharasch at the University of Maryland in 1927. An interesting technical summary of the substance can be found on Drugbank Online.

Morris Selig Kharasch. Photo credit: National Academy of Sciences, 1960.

Kharasch is known for his pioneering work in free radical chemistry in the 1930’s at the University of Chicago but before that began his work with organomercury chemistry during the 1920’s while at the University of Maryland. His development of Thimerosal was a result of his organomercury work. He is also credited with opening the door to organic free radical chemistry leading to improvements in rubber polymer chemistry and manufacture. His work led to the use of peroxides to reliably induce the so-called anti-Markovnikov addition of a protic acid (HX) to olefins. The presence of trace peroxides was behind the unexpected “reverse” Markovnikov addition of seen in work with the addition of hydrogen bromide to bromopropene.

Kharasch’s early work in organomercury chemistry led to the invention (and patenting) of what became known as Merthiolate (thimerosal). Kharasch later worked as a successful consultant for Eli Lilly, the Du Pont Company, US Rubber, the US Army and others. In many cases these companies were the assignees of the patents.

Little mention is made of Morris Kharasch as a prolific and wide-ranging inventor with, by my count, 117 US patents with him as the inventor. So, why did Kharasch bother to patent Thimerosal? Did he anticipate its biocidal and preservative properties?

Kharasch references make mention of a 1931 patent regarding Thimerosal. That patent is STABILIZED BACTERICIDE AND PROCESS OF STABILIZING IT, US 1862896, appln. filed August 22, 1931, assignee: no party disclosed. The patent claims a process for and claims of water-soluble solution compositions. Numerous additives include antioxidants, alkyl amines, ethanolamine and borax. Claim 19 is telling. It claims the composition of sodium ethyl mercurithiosalicylate (Thimerosal), monoethanolamine, borax as a buffer and enough sodium chloride to make the composition sufficiently isotonic with the body fluids. In this patent the Thimerosal composition itself is not claimed, but as a component of a stabilized water solution. Claim 14 claims a water solution composition of sodium ethyl mercurithiosalicylate and an antioxidant which tends to “inhibit the acquisition” (odd choice of words) of burning properties by the solution. This plus the claim of an isotonic composition strongly suggests anticipated medicinal applications.

STABILIZED ORGANO-MERCUR-SULFUR COMPOUNDS, US 2012820, appln. Feb 17, 1934, assignee: Eli Lilly and Company. Claims a stabilized solution of alkyl mercuric sulfur compounds in water with aliphatic 1,2-diamines. Also claims Ethylenediamine ethylmercurithiosalicylate composition. This is similar to the ‘896 patent but specified ethylenediamines.

As mentioned above, the biocidal nature of inorganic mercurials had been known for a long time. There was actually limited success in the treatment of syphilis. But they were long known for being very harsh on the patient and grew out of favor when better treatments came along.

The antiseptic properties of Mercurochrome were discovered in 1918 at Johns Hopkins Hospital by urologist Hugh H. Young. Mercurochrome is essentially a dye molecule with an attached mercury warhead. There are three groups on the organic structure that aid in its solubility in water- NaO, CO2Na, and HgOH. Water solubility is often an important attribute in medicinal substances.

Source: Wikipedia.

Given that antiseptic properties of organomercurials were known, it is perhaps not surprising that an enterprising Ukrainian immigrant with an interest in organomercurials like Morris Kharasch might want to patent his invention.

Interview of Timothy Snyder on the Putin-Ukraine War

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An interview with the historian Timothy Snyder has appeared in the March 9th, 2023, internet issue of Der Spiegel International. The interview was conducted By Ann-Dorit Boy und Eva-Maria Schnurr. Snyder has very strong Euorpean history credentials with a Ph.D. in History from the University of Oxford. He is presently the Richard C. Levin Professor of History at Yale University and a permanent fellow at the Institute for Human Sciences in Vienna.

Photo from Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_D._Snyder

The interview starts with an important question for Germany-

“As Germans accept the debate on Putin’s terms, they can miss the obvious point: If we care about the comparison, we have to note right away that it is Putin’s Russia that is behaving more like Germany in 1941: Moscow, like Berlin then, claims that a neighboring people and state do not exist; Moscow, like Berlin then, is fighting a war of aggression; Moscow, like Berlin then, is carrying out eugenic, deportation, and mass killing policies. If Russia is behaving as the Germans did in 1941, then the Germans now have a second chance to respond to fascism. Will they take that second chance?“

Snyder makes the point that German reticence to aid Ukraine in the war is what Putin wants.

“In Russia, his [Putin’s] intention is to build a cult of innocence: No matter what we do, it must be justified, because we are always the righteous victim. Of course, this contradicts the actual history of the Second World War, in which Stalin chose to ally with Hitler, and in which Ukrainians actually suffered more than Russians, by any measure. Putin is also seeking to exploit the historical memory of Germans. He wants to trigger the German reflex that Russians must be victims and Germans must be aggressors.“

I will end here because the article needs no explanation from me. It’s worth the read.

Achievements of #45

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I’m brain-dead already today from some stultifying regulatory activities. I ran across this over lunch and thought I should post it. MAGA people probably won’t enjoy this and would be well advised to just shuffle along.

The source of this content said to cut, paste and pass along. I remember many of these entries from when they happened so I don’t feel too bad about passing it along. Whoever compiled this list deserves lots of credit. Here it is- the achievements of President #45.

1. he incited an insurrection against the government,

2. mismanaged a pandemic that killed a million Americans,

3. separated children from their families, lost those children in the bureaucracy,

4. tear-gassed peaceful protesters on Lafayette Square so he could hold a photo op holding a Bible in front of a church,

5. tried to block all Muslims from entering the country,

6. got impeached,

7. got impeached again,

8. had the worst jobs record of any president in modern history,

9. pressured Ukraine to dig dirt on Joe Biden,

10. fired the FBI director for investigating his ties to Russia,

11. bragged about firing the FBI director on TV,

12. took Vladimir Putin’s word over the US intelligence community,

13. diverted military funding to build his wall,

14. caused the longest government shutdown in US history,

15. called Black Lives Matter a “symbol of hate,”

16. lied nearly 30,000 times,

17. banned transgender people from serving in the military,

18. ejected reporters from the White House briefing room who asked tough questions,

19. vetoed the defense funding bill because it renamed military bases named for Confederate soldiers,

20. refused to release his tax returns,

21. increased the national debt by nearly $8 TRILLION,

22. had three of the highest annual trade deficits in U.S. history,

23. called veterans and soldiers who died in combat losers and suckers,

24. coddled the leader of Saudi Arabia after he ordered the execution and dismembering of a US-based journalist,

25. refused to concede the 2020 election,

26. hired his unqualified daughter and son-in-law to work in the White House,

27. walked out of an interview with Lesley Stahl,

28. called neo-Nazis “very fine people,”

29. suggested that people should inject bleach into their bodies to fight COVID,

30. abandoned our allies the Kurds to Turkey,

31. pushed through massive tax cuts for the wealthiest but balked at helping working Americans,

32. incited anti-lockdown protestors in several states at the height of the pandemic,

33. withdrew the US from the Paris climate accords,

34. withdrew the US from the Iranian nuclear deal,

35. withdrew the US from the Trans Pacific Partnership which was designed to block China’s advances,

36. insulted his own Cabinet members on Twitter,

37. pushed the leader of Montenegro out of the way during a photo op,

38. failed to reiterate US commitment to defending NATO allies,

39. called Haiti and African nations “shithole” countries,

40. called the city of Baltimore the “worst in the nation,”

41. claimed that he single handedly brought back the phrase “Merry Christmas” even though it hadn’t gone anywhere,

42. forced his Cabinet members to praise him publicly like some cult leader,

43. believed he should be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize,

44. berated and belittled his hand-picked Attorney General when he recused himself from the Russia probe,

45. suggested the US should buy Greenland,

46. colluded with Mitch McConnell to push through federal judges and two Supreme Court justices after supporting efforts to prevent his predecessor from appointing judges,

47. repeatedly called the media “enemies of the people,”

48. claimed that if we tested fewer people for COVID we’d have fewer cases,

49. violated the emoluments clause,

50. thought that Nambia was a country,

51. told Bob Woodward in private that the coronavirus was a big deal but then downplayed it in public,

52. called his exceedingly faithful vice president a “p—y” for following the Constitution,

53. nearly got us into a war with Iran after threatening them by tweet,

54. nominated a corrupt head of the EPA,

55. nominated a corrupt head of HHS,

56. nominated a corrupt head of the Interior Department,

57. nominated a corrupt head of the USDA,

58. praised dictators and authoritarians around the world while criticizing allies,

59. refused to allow the presidential transition to begin,

60. insulted war hero John McCain – even after his death,

61. spent an obscene amount of time playing golf after criticizing Barack Obama for playing (far less) golf while president,

62. falsely claimed that he won the 2016 popular vote,

63. called the Muslim mayor of London a “stone cold loser,”

64. falsely claimed that he turned down being Time’s Man of the Year,

65. considered firing special counsel Robert Mueller on several occasions,

66. mocked wearing face masks to guard against transmitting COVID,

67. locked Congress out of its constitutional duty to confirm Cabinet officials by hiring acting ones,

68. used a racist dog whistle by calling COVID the “China virus,”

69. hired and associated with numerous shady figures that were eventually convicted of federal offenses including his campaign manager and national security adviser,

70. pardoned several of his shady associates,

71. gave the Presidential Medal of Freedom to two congressmen who amplified his batshit crazy conspiracy theories,

72. got into telephone fight with the leader of Australia(!),

73. had a Secretary of State who called him a moron,

74. forced his press secretary to claim without merit that his was the largest inauguration crowd in history,

75. botched the COVID vaccine rollout,

76. tweeted so much dangerous propaganda that Twitter eventually banned him,

77. charged the Secret Service jacked-up rates at his properties,

78. constantly interrupted Joe Biden in their first presidential debate,

79. claimed that COVID would “magically” disappear,

80. called a U.S. Senator “Pocahontas,”

81. used his Twitter account to blast Nordstrom when it stopped selling Ivanka’s merchandise,

82. opened up millions of pristine federal lands to development and drilling,

83. got into a losing tariff war with China that forced US taxpayers to bail out farmers,

84. claimed that his losing tariff war was a win for the US,

85. ignored or didn’t even take part in daily intelligence briefings,

86. blew off honoring American war dead in France because it was raining,

87. redesigned Air Force One to look like the Trump Shuttle,

88. got played by Kim Jung Un and his “love letters,”

89. threatened to go after social media companies in clear violation of the Constitution,

90. botched the response to Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico,

91. threw paper towels at Puerto Ricans when he finally visited them,

92. pressured the governor and secretary of state of Georgia to “find” him votes,

93. thought that the Virgin islands had a President,

94. drew on a map with a Sharpie to justify his inaccurate tweet that Alabama was threatened by a hurricane,

95. allowed White House staff to use personal email accounts for official businesses after blasting Hillary Clinton for doing the same thing,

96. rolled back regulations that protected the public from mercury and asbestos,

97. pushed regulators to waste time studying snake-oil remedies for COVID,

98. rolled back regulations that stopped coal companies from dumping waste into rivers,

99. held blatant campaign rallies at the White House,

100. tried to take away millions of Americans’ health insurance because the law was named for a Black man,

101. refused to attend his successors’ inauguration,

102. nominated the worst Education Secretary in history,

103. threatened judges who didn’t do what he wanted,

104. attacked Dr. Anthony Fauci,

105. promised that Mexico would pay for the wall (it didn’t),

106. allowed political hacks to overrule government scientists on major reports on climate change and other issues,

107. struggled navigating a ramp after claiming his opponent was feeble,

108. called an African-American Congresswoman “low IQ,”

109. threatened to withhold federal aid from states and cities with Democratic leaders,

110. went ahead with rallies filled with maskless supporters in the middle of a pandemic,

111. claimed that legitimate investigations of his wrongdoing were “witch hunts,”

112. seemed to demonstrate a belief that there were airports during the American Revolution,

113. demanded “total loyalty” from the FBI director,

114. praised a conspiracy theory that Democrats are Satanic pedophiles,

115. completely gutted the Voice of America,

116. placed a political hack in charge of the Postal Service,

117. claimed without evidence that the Obama administration bugged Trump Tower,

118. suggested that the US should allow more people from places like Norway into the country,

119. suggested that COVID wasn’t that bad because he recovered with the help of top government doctors and treatments not available to the public,

120. overturned energy conservation standards that even industry supported,

121. reduced the number of refugees the US accepts,

122. insulted various members of Congress and the media with infantile nicknames,

123. gave Rush Limbaugh a Presidential medal of Freedom at the State of the Union address,

124. named as head of federal personnel a 29-year old who’d previously been fired from the White House for allegations of financial improprieties,

125. eliminated the White House office of pandemic response,

126. used soldiers as campaign props,

127. fired any advisor who made the mistake of disagreeing with him,

128. demanded the Pentagon throw him a Soviet-style military parade,

129. hired a shit ton of white nationalists,

130. politicized the civil service,

131. did absolutely nothing after Russia hacked the U.S. government,

132. falsely said the Boy Scouts called him to say his bizarre Jamboree speech was the best speech ever given to the Scouts,

133. claimed that Black people would overrun the suburbs if Biden won,

134. insulted reporters of color,

135. insulted women reporters,

136. insulted women reporters of color,

137. suggested he was fine with China’s oppression of the Uighurs,

138. attacked the Supreme Court when it ruled against him,

139. summoned Pennsylvania state legislative leaders to the White House to pressure them to overturn the election,

140. spent countless hours every day watching Fox News,

141. refused to allow his administration to comply with Congressional subpoenas,

142. hired Rudy Giuliani as his lawyer,

143. tried to punish Amazon because the Jeff Bezos-owned Washington Post wrote negative stories about him,

144. acted as if the Attorney General of the United States was his personal attorney,

145. attempted to get the federal government to defend him in a libel lawsuit from a prominent lady who accused him of sexual assault,

146. held private meetings with Vladimir Putin without staff present,

147. didn’t disclose his private meetings with Vladimir Putin so that the US had to find out via Russian media,

148. stopped holding press briefings for months at a time,

149. “ordered” US companies to leave China even though he has no such power,

150. led a political party that couldn’t even be bothered to draft a policy platform,

151. claimed preposterously that Article II of the Constitution gave him absolute powers,

152. tried to pressure the U.K. to hold the British Open at his golf course,

153. suggested that the government nuke hurricanes,

154. suggested that wind turbines cause cancer,

155. said that he had a special aptitude for science,

156. fired the head of election cyber security after he said that the 2020 election was secure,

157. blurted out classified information to Russian officials,

158. tried to force the G7 to hold their meeting at his failing golf resort in Florida,

159. fired the acting attorney general when she refused to go along with his unconstitutional Muslim travel ban,

160. hired notorious racist Stephen Miller,

161. openly discussed national security issues in the dining room at Mar-a-Lago where everyone could hear them,

162. interfered with plans to relocate the FBI because a new development there might compete with his hotel,

163. abandoned Iraqi refugees who’d helped the U.S. during the war,

164. tried to get Russia back into the G7,

165. held a COVID super spreader event in the Rose Garden,

166. seemed to believe that Frederick Douglass is still alive,

167. lost 60 election fraud cases in court including before judges he had nominated,

168. falsely claimed that factories were reopening when they weren’t,

169. shamelessly exploited terror attacks in Europe to justify his anti-immigrant policies,

170. still hasn’t come up with a healthcare plan,

171. still hasn’t come up with an infrastructure plan despite repeated “Infrastructure Weeks,”

172. forced Secret Service agents to drive him around Walter Reed while contagious with COVID,

173. told the Proud Boys to “stand back and stand by,”

174. fucked up the Census,

175. withdrew the U.S. from the World Health Organization in the middle of a pandemic,

176. did so few of his duties that his press staff were forced to state on his daily schedule “President Trump will work from early in the morning until late in the evening. He will make many calls and have many meetings,”

177. allowed his staff to repeatedly violate the Hatch Act,

178. seemed not to know that Abraham Lincoln was a Republican,

179. stood before sacred CIA wall of heroes and bragged about his election win,

180. constantly claimed he was treated worse than any president which presumably includes four that were assassinated and his predecessor whose legitimacy and birthplace were challenged by a racist reality TV show star named Donald Trump,

181. claimed Andrew Jackson could’ve stopped the Civil War even though he died 16 years before it happened,

182. said that any opinion poll showing him behind was fake,

183. claimed that other countries laughed at us before he became president when several world leaders were literally laughing at him,

184. claimed that the military was out of ammunition before he became President,

185. created a commission to whitewash American history,

186. retweeted anti-Islam videos from one of the most racist people in Britain,

187. claimed ludicrously that the Pulse nightclub shooting wouldn’t have happened if someone there had a gun even though there was an armed security guard there,

188. hired a senior staffer who cited the non-existent Bowling Green Massacre as a reason to ban Muslims,

189. had a press secretary who claimed that Nazi Germany never used chemical weapons even though every sane human being knows they used gas to kill millions of Jews and others,

190. bilked the Secret Service for higher than market rates when they had to stay at Trump properties,

191. apparently sold pardons on his way out of the White House,

192. stripped protective status from 59,000 Haitians,

193. falsely claimed Biden wanted to defund the police,

194. said that the head of the CDC didn’t know what he was talking about,

195. tried to rescind protection from DREAMers,

196. gave himself an A+ for his handling of the pandemic,

197. tried to start a boycott of Goodyear tires due to an Internet hoax,

198. said U.S. rates of COVID would be lower if you didn’t count blue states,

199. deported U.S. veterans who served their country but were undocumented,

200. claimed he did more for African Americans than any president since Lincoln,

201. touted a “super-duper” secret “hydrosonic” missile which may or may not be a new “hypersonic” missile or may not exist at all,

202. retweeted a gif calling Biden a pedophile,

203. forced through security clearances for his family,

204. suggested that police officers should rough up suspects,

205. suggested that Biden was on performance-enhancing drugs,

206. tried to stop transgender students from being able to use school bathrooms in line with their gender,

207. suggested the US not accept COVID patients from a cruise ship because it would make US numbers look higher,

208. nominated a climate change sceptic to chair the committee advising the White House on environmental policy,

209. retweeted a video doctored to look like Biden

210. had played a song called “Fuck tha Police” at a campaign event,

211. hugged a disturbingly large number of U.S. flags,

212. accused Democrats of “treason” for not applauding his State of the Union address,

213. claimed that the FBI failed to capture the Parkland school shooter because they were “spending too much time” on Russia,

214. mocked the testimony of Dr Christine Blasey Ford when she accused Brett Kavanaugh of sexual assault,

215. obsessed over low-flow toilets,

216. ordered the rerelease of more COVID vaccines when there weren’t any to release,

217. called for the construction of a bizarre garden of heroes with statutes of famous dead Americans as well as at least one Canadian (Alex Trebek),

218. hijacked Washington’s July 4th celebrations to give a partisan speech,

219. took advice from the MyPillow guy,

220. claimed that migrants seeking a better life in the US were dangerous caravans of drug dealers and rapists,

221. said nothing when Vladimir Putin poisoned a leading opposition figure,

222. never seemed to heed the advice of his wife’s “Be Best” campaign,

223. falsely claimed that mail-in voting is fraudulent,

224. announced a precipitous withdrawal of troops from Syria which not only handed Russia and ISIS a win but also prompted his defense secretary to resign in protest,

225. insulted the leader of Canada,

226. insulted the leader of France,

227. insulted the leader of Britain,

228. insulted the leader of Germany,

229. insulted the leader of Sweden (Sweden!!),

230. falsely claimed credit for getting NATO members to increase their share of dues,

231. blew off two Asia summits even though they were held virtually,

232. continued lying about spending lots of time at Ground Zero with 9/11 responders,

233. said that the Japanese would sit back and watch their “Sony televisions” if the US were ever attacked,

234. left a NATO summit early in a huff,

235. stared directly into an eclipse even though everyone over the age of 5 knows not to do that,

236. called himself a very stable genius despite significant evidence to the contrary,

237. refused to commit to a peaceful transfer of power and kept his promise.

238. Don’t forget that he took many classified & top secret documents with him when he left the White House, many of which have not been recovered & may have been compromised.

The Toxco Story – Parts 1 & 2

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This is a guest post written by a good friend and colleague who retired as an executive from the specialty chemical industry. He is an author and editor of a respected book on Grignard chemistry. It is an honor for me to post his recollections on this site with his permission.

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The TOXCO Story – Part I

I suppose this story begins during the Cold War. The US had developed a triad of defense capabilities to deter Soviet aggression. We had the Air Force B-52 bombers armed with atomic weapons, the submarine based Trident missiles, and the land based ICBMs–first the liquid fuel Atlas rockets and later the solid fuel Minuteman missiles hidden is silos in North Dakota and elsewhere.

Then came 1989, the destruction of the Berlin Wall, the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union and, suddenly, the Russians were no longer the dreaded foes whom we once feared. Maybe it was time to “stand down” our hair-trigger defense posture.

Those solid fuel Minuteman rockets were designed to be launched on short notice. Firing them required a significant amount of electricity. This was to come from the electric power grid. But our military, recognizing that this source of power could be compromised in the tense times leading up to a nuclear confrontation, needed a backup. As a result, each missile silo was equipped with a diesel powered electric generator, just in case.

But things could go wrong. The diesel fuel might be contaminated, or sabotaged by Russian saboteurs, or any of a number of other problems. So, in an overabundance of precaution, the military insisted on a “backup to the backup”. And what could be better or more reliable as a source of electricity, than a battery. To be sure, these would have to be BIG batteries, bigger and more powerful than any produced thus far, but they would be certain.

And so, the Defense Department commissioned the production of the world’s largest and most powerful batteries. These were based on lithium-thionyl chloride chemistry[1]. Each primary cell contained sheets of elemental lithium, surrounded by gallons of thionyl chloride, a reactive liquid which on contact with water produces a mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid—really nasty stuff. These primary cells were each about the size of a coffin and it took three, ganged together to generate the power needed to initiate a missile launch. The government contracted for thousands of them and Union Carbide supplied them.

Apparently, at some point, there was a fatal incident involving a 10,000 amp Minuteman battery being drained and replaced[2] and this contributed to a decision in the early-mid 1990s to dispose of these hazardous items. The DOD issued a Request for Proposals (RFP) which caught the attention of a group of businessmen and entrepreneurs in southern California.

Operating in Orange County, California, headquartered in Anaheim, near Disneyland, were three affiliated companies. Adams Steel was in the ferrous metal recycling business-old washing machines, refrigerators, scrapped cars. Before you scrap a car, you remove the lead-acid battery and the catalytic converter. The battery, containing lead metal, lead salts and sulfuric acid is a hazardous waste and its disposal is regulated by the EPA. The catalytic converter contains precious metals such as platinum, rhodium and iridium. These two items (batteries and catalytic converters) were handled by Kinsbursky Brothers. Non-ferrous metals (common ones such as copper and aluminum and non-common ones like tantalum and gallium from electronic devices) were processed by Alpert & Alpert. The companies had worked together for a number of years.

Principals at Adams Steel and Kinsbursky decided to form a joint venture to bid on the lithium battery disposal opportunity. They created TOXCO for this purpose. It was headed by Terry Adams (the youngest sibling in the Adams family) and Steve Kinsbursky. And they won the bid. The government would pay TOXCO millions of dollars to dispose of these batteries that the government had paid millions of dollars to manufacture some years earlier. Your tax dollars at work.

So, how do you dispose of a lithium-thionyl chloride cell weighing hundreds of pound and filled with dangerous and explosive ingredients? Well, if you are a mechanical engineer, trained at USC (as Terry Adams was), you take a mechanical engineering approach the problem. You have to neutralize the thionyl chloride and the lithium by reaction with water. And reactions take place more slowly (and more safely) at lower temperatures. So, the answer is to chill the cell in liquid nitrogen down to 77°K, put it in a large container filled with water and chop it apart with big mechanical knives (like you chop an automobile into small pieces for scrap). This actually works. Provided you’re certain that the cells have been fully discharged first. But don’t take the military’s word for it. If you do, there may be an embarrassing incident, as there was in 2000, during the disposal process.[3]

Next question. Where do you do this disposal? The TOXCO team discovered that there was an underused industrial site in Trail, British Columbia, on the Canadian side of the Idaho border. It had been part of the Cominco Smelter operations and was one of the most heavily polluted sites in North America[4]. What better place to site a hazardous battery disposal plant? If something went wrong, who would notice?

And so, TOXCO went into business, disposing of lithium batteries, successfully (except for a few incidents like the one incident alluded to above).

One of the by-products of this process was a stream of aqueous lithium salts. These had value and could be recovered and that put TOXCO into the lithium chemicals business. But that’s part II of this story.

The TOXCO Story – Part II
(the Lithchem Story)

This story also begins in the Cold War. Even as the atomic bomb (the uranium and the plutonium fission bomb) was being engineered into reality at Los Alamos in the mid 1940s, plans were being made for the next generation weapon—a fusion bomb.

The first H-bomb, based on the concept of fusing light nuclei, was tested at Eniwetok in the South Pacific in 1953. Improvements in the initial “clunky” design quickly followed. One way to boost the power of the explosion was to surround the core of the bomb with a layer of lithium deuteride, LiD. Lithium is, well, the element lithium, atomic number 3 in the Periodic Chart. And deuterium is the name for “heavy hydrogen”, an atom of hydrogen, atomic number 1, but also containing an uncharged neutron[5]. Provided that the lithium used was of atomic weight 6, the fusion of the lithium(6) and the deuterium(2) would produce two nuclei of helium(4), plus lots of energy.

This would only work if you used lithium-6. Unfortunately, the lithium available to us on this planet in mineral form, deposited around the globe, is a mixture of lithium-6 and lithium-7 (the same element, but with one extra neutron). And God, in His infinite wisdom, chose to endow the earth with mostly lithium-7. Of the naturally occurring deposits of lithium, 93% is lithium-7.

So, if you need to use just Li-6, you have to separate it out from the more abundant, naturally occurring Li-7. And the US government proceeded to do just that. Starting in the 1950s, they processed millions of pounds of lithium containing minerals to extract the less abundant isotope that was required for its military purpose. For every hundred pounds of lithium salt they processed, they got, at most, 6 pounds of lithium-6 salt[6].

And what do you do with the “leftover” 94+ pounds. Well, you can’t just turn it back into the lithium chemicals marketplace. For one thing, it’s “depleted” lithium (missing its naturally occurring share of Li-6.) This would be easily noticed by someone using the lithium for routine chemical purposes. The extent of “depletion”, that is, of extraction of the Li-6 would be measureable, and that information was a secret[7]. Moreover, if the quantity of depleted Li were ever realized, that number could be used to infer the number of LiD containing bombs, and that too was a secret.

So, for more than five decades, for more than half a century, the US government simply stockpiled the “by-product” depleted lithium in a warehouse, in the form of the simple salt, lithium hydroxide monohydrate, LiOH•H2O. Millions of pounds of it. Packaged in poly lined, 55 gallon fiber drums.

In later years, the cardboard drums began to deteriorate. Some of them were damaged during handling and relocation. Sometime in the 1980s the decision was made to repack the inventory in bright yellow steel “overpack” drums.

Now comes the early 1990s. The Cold War is over. Our nuclear secrets, at least those from the 1950s, are far less precious. And the Clinton administration is looking through Fibber McGee’s closet[8] to see what can be disposed of, and maybe generate a revenue stream for the government in the process.

What they discover is 100,000,000 pounds of “depleted” lithium hydroxide monohydrate, with a potential market value approaching $1 per pound. And so, it goes out for bids.

The terms of the sealed bid auction were that the final sale would be split 70-30 between the highest bidder (who would get 70% of the inventory) and the second highest bidder (who would get 30%, but at the high bid price).

This was a perfect set up. At that time there were only two lithium companies operating in the US who could handle this quantity of inventory—Lithium Corporation of America[9] and Foote Mineral Company[10]. And both of them knew that there was no incentive for overbidding since even the loser would get 30% of the supply.

And that’s where Lithchem appeared on the scene. The TOXCO team was already in the “recovered lithium” business. All they had to do was bid one penny more per pound than the other two majors and they would be awarded the lion’s share of the inventory. They incorporated Lithchem for that purpose. I’m told that LCA and Foote each bid the same number, somewhere in the 20+ cents per pound range, and Lithchem bid one cent more. As a result, Lithchem became the proud owner of 70,000,000 pounds of depleted lithium hydroxide monohydrate.

Now what? The principal use of LiOH is in the manufacture of high performance lithium greases, used in heavy industrial applications-heavy trucks, railroads, etc. Much of the market for lithium greases is in the third world and quality is less of a concern than price.

Still, to be sold on the open market, the LiOH from the government stockpile had to meet certain specifications. Some of the yellow drums contained beautiful white crystalline powder. Others contained dead cats and cigarette butts. It was “government quality” inventory.

One condition of the bid was that the winning bidder had to remove the inventory from its location in a government warehouse (in southeast Ohio[11]) within 12 months of the successful bid. I had the occasion to visit that warehouse, before the stock was removed and it was a memorable sight.

If you recall the final scene in the movie “Raiders of the Lost Ark”, the Ark of the Covenant is being stored in a gigantic government warehouse, filled floor to ceiling with identical gray boxes. A warehouse stretching far into the next county. Now replace those gray boxes with yellow overpack drums, stacked 6 or 8 high, stretching far into the next county. That’s what it was like. That’s what 70,000,000 pounds of LiOH hydrate looked like.

[1] The lithium – thionyl chloride primary cell has a high voltage (3.5 V) and a high current density.

[2] Battery Hazards and Accident Prevention,  By S.C. Levy, P. Bro

[3] In November 2009 a fire broke out at the Trail BC facility in a storage shed containing lithium batteries slated for disposal. It was their sixth fire in fifteen years. Prior to that, a major fire in 1995 destroyed 40,000 kg of batteries at the facility. Three fires occurred in 2000, including one caused by some lithium batteries. This was during the summer when negotiations were underway between Toxco and Atochem for the acquisition of the Ozark business. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/trail-battery-recycling-fire-leaves-questions-1.805780

[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teck_Resources

[5] Elements with the same atomic number but different weights are called isotopes. Heavy hydrogen (with an atomic weight 2) is an isotope of hydrogen (atomic number 1). Another example is carbon-14, useful for radiocarbon dating. It’s a heavier version of the more common version of carbon, C-12.

[6] Actually less than 6 pounds. The extraction process was less than perfectly efficient. The actual yield of Li-6 was a closely guarded national secret.

[7] In depleted lithium (with the Li-6 removed), the relative abundance of lithium-6 can be reduced to as little as 20 percent of its normal value, giving the measured atomic mass ranging from 6.94 Da to 7.00 Da.

[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibber_McGee_and_Molly#The_Closet

[9] Acquired by FMC in 1995 and now known as FMC Lithium.

[10] Now part of the Chemetall Group, a division of Rockwood Holdings.

[11] At the time, it was stored at the DOE enrichment facility in Portsmouth, Ohio.